Irish (Gaeilge)

Irish (Gaeilge, or in older spelling Gaedhilge/Gaeilge) is a Celtic language of the Indo-European family. It belongs to the Goidelic (Gaelic) branch of the Insular Celtic subfamily, alongside Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) and Manx (Gaelg/Yn Vannick). These three languages share a common history and many structural features; speakers of one can often recognise words and patterns in the others, and with exposure can often develop useful mutual intelligibility, though they are distinct languages rather than dialects of a single tongue.

Origins, early history and development

Irish descends from the Celtic languages spoken in Ireland in prehistory. The earliest written traces are Ogham inscriptions (orthography carved into stone, mainly monosyllabic names) dating from roughly the 4th–7th centuries CE. From those roots a well-documented literary tradition emerges:

Old Irish (c. 600–900 CE) is the language of ogham glosses, early law tracts and heroic poetry.
Middle Irish (c. 900–1200) is the language of much medieval literature and the nucleus of the classical literary language used across Gaelic Ireland and Gaelic Scotland.
Early Modern Irish / Classical Gaelic (c. 1200–1600) continued a pan-Gaelic written standard used by poets and learned classes.
Modern Irish (from c. 17th century to present) diversified into regional dialects (Connacht, Munster, Ulster) and—after the language revival movement of the 19th and 20th centuries—into a standardized modern variety used in education, media and public life.

Medieval Ireland produced several of the earliest vernacular literatures north of the Alps; heroic tales such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge (the Táin) are preserved in medieval manuscripts and continue to be central to Irish literary identity.

Where it is spoken and how many people speak it

Irish is the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland (the constitution gives it primacy) and is also recognised and used in parts of Northern Ireland. According to the Republic of Ireland’s 2022 census results:

About 1.87 million people (≈40% of the population aged 3+) reported that they could speak Irish.
However, many of those report little or no active use: around 72,000 people reported speaking Irish daily (inside and outside the education system), and only a fraction of those are native, community speakers. Estimates of fully native Irish speakers in Ireland usually range roughly between 40,000 and 80,000, depending on criteria used.
The traditional heartlands where Irish is still spoken as a community language are the Gaeltacht areas — mostly along parts of the western seaboard (Counties Donegal, Mayo, Galway, Kerry and parts of Cork, Waterford and Meath), including several inhabited islands. The total Gaeltacht population is modest (roughly on the order of tens of thousands; earlier censuses put total Gaeltacht population around 90–100,000), and linguists note that daily active use is concentrated in relatively few electoral divisions within those regions.

Relationship to other Celtic languages and mutual intelligibility

Irish is a Goidelic language. Its closest relatives are:

Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig) — diverged after the early medieval period; many cognate words and similar grammar remain. Many Irish and Scottish Gaelic speakers can recognise vocabulary and grammatical patterns; mutual intelligibility is partial and increases with contact and study.
Manx (Gaelg) — developed on the Isle of Man; historically closer to Irish dialects of the north-west and to Scottish Gaelic; mutual intelligibility is also partial.

With the Brythonic Celtic languages (Welsh, Cornish, Breton) Irish shares a more distant common Celtic ancestry; mutual intelligibility with those is minimal.

Grammar

Irish grammar differs in several notable ways from English:

Basic word order: canonical VSO (verb–subject–object) in finite clauses (e.g. Itheann Seán an t-arán — “Eats Seán the bread” → “Seán eats the bread”).
Initial mutations: consonants change at the start of words in many grammatical contexts (lenition, eclipsis); these mutations convey possession, grammatical relationships and are triggered by particles, prepositions and other morphology.
Nouns and cases: nouns show two main cases (nominative and genitive) and have gender (masculine/feminine). There is also a vocative case used in direct address (marked in pronunciation and—classically—in punctuation with the particle a).
Verbal system: verbs have inflected forms for person in the synthetic conjugation (especially in the past and future), and use periphrastic constructions (with particles like an, ní, ná) and preverbal particles to mark questions and negation. Irish also uses inflected prepositions (prepositions combine with pronouns to make single words, e.g. le “with” → liom “with me”).
Prepositional pronouns and particles are a central feature (e.g. agam “at me / I have”, agam = ag + mé).

These structural features make Irish compact in some respects (lots of meaning packed into particles and mutations) and typologically distinctive in others. For a reader’s quick orientation: Irish sentences often place the verb first, use mutations to show relationships, and frequently attach pronoun information to prepositions and verbs. (Further reading in dedicated grammars is recommended for learners.)

Table 1: Irish Personal Pronouns

Person / Number	Subject Pronoun	Example Sentence	English
1st sg.	mé	Tá mé anseo.	I am here.
2nd sg.	tú	An bhfuil tú sásta?	Are you happy?
3rd sg. masc.	sé	Tá sé fuar.	He/it is cold.
3rd sg. fem.	sí	Tá sí tuirseach.	She/it is tired.
1st pl.	muid / sinn	Tá muid/sinn ag caint.	We are talking.
2nd pl.	sibh	An bhfuil sibh réidh?	Are you (plural) ready?
3rd pl.	siad	Tá siad ag obair.	They are working.

Note: Both muid and sinn are used for “we,” depending on dialect and register.

Table 2:

20 Common Irish Verbs

Verb (Infinitive / Verbal noun)	Present Tense (3rd sg.)	Example Sentence	English
bí (to be)	tá	Tá sé sásta.	He is happy.
abair (to say)	deir	Deir sí go bhfuil sé fíor.	She says it is true.
déan (to do/make)	déanann	Déanann siad a gcuid obair.	They do their work.
feic (to see)	feiceann	Feiceann mé an carr.	I see the car.
faigh (to get)	faigheann	Faigheann sé bronntanas.	He gets a present.
ith (to eat)	itheann	Itheann sí úll.	She eats an apple.
ól (to drink)	ólann	Ólann siad uisce.	They drink water.
téigh (to go)	téann	Téann muid abhaile.	We go home.
tar (to come)	tagann	Tagann sé go minic.	He comes often.
tabhair (to give/bring)	tugann	Tugann sí cabhair dom.	She gives me help.
clois (to hear)	cloiseann	Cloiseann mé an ceol.	I hear the music.
beir (to catch)	beireann	Beireann sé ar an liathróid.	He catches the ball.
cuir (to put/send)	cuireann	Cuireann sí an litir.	She sends the letter.
fág (to leave)	fágann	Fágann siad an teach.	They leave the house.
tóg (to take/build)	tógann	Tógann sé pictiúr.	He takes a picture.
smaoinigh (to think)	smaoiníonn	Smaoiníonn sí ar an scéal.	She thinks about the story.
scríobh (to write)	scríobhann	Scríobhann sé litir.	He writes a letter.
léigh (to read)	léann	Léann siad an nuachtán.	They read the newspaper.
ceannaigh (to buy)	ceannaíonn	Ceannaíonn sí bróga.	She buys shoes.
díol (to sell)	díolann	Díolann sé torthaí.	He sells fruit.

Below is a table with two common verbs.

bí (“to be”) — irregular and very frequent
déan (“to do/make”) — a regular verb

Verb 1: Bí (to be) – Present Tense

Person	Form	Example	English
1st sg.	táim / tá mé	Táim sásta.	I am happy.
2nd sg.	tá tú	Tá tú anseo.	You are here.
3rd sg. masc.	tá sé	Tá sé fuar.	He/It is cold.
3rd sg. fem.	tá sí	Tá sí tinn.	She/It is sick.
1st pl.	táimid / tá muid	Táimid réidh.	We are ready.
2nd pl.	tá sibh	Tá sibh ag caint.	You (pl.) are talking.
3rd pl.	tá siad	Tá siad sásta.	They are happy.

Verb 2: Déan (to do/make) – Present Tense

Person	Form	Example	English
1st sg.	déanaim	Déanaim obair bhaile.	I do homework.
2nd sg.	déanann tú	Déanann tú an cócaireacht.	You do the cooking.
3rd sg. masc.	déanann sé	Déanann sé an obair.	He does the work.
3rd sg. fem.	déanann sí	Déanann sí cáca.	She makes a cake.
1st pl.	déanaimid	Déanaimid spórt.	We do sport.
2nd pl.	déanann sibh	Déanann sibh staidéar.	You (pl.) do study.
3rd pl.	déanann siad	Déanann siad ceol.	They make music.

Phonology (short sketch)

Vowels: Irish dialects distinguish several vowel qualities and lengths; there is also a phonemic contrast between broad vs slender consonants (velarised vs palatalised) that affects neighbouring vowels.
Consonants: the language has both palatalised (slender) and non-palatalised (broad) series of many consonants. /h/ and fricatives appear in certain dialects; lenition is realised as consonant softening (e.g. /b/ → /v/).
Stress: generally penultimate or antepenultimate depending on dialect and morphology.
Notable features: initial mutations (lenition, eclipsis) are morphophonological and visible in pronunciation and orthography.

Because phonological details vary by dialect (Ulster, Connacht, Munster) a learner or reader will encounter different pronunciations of the same words in different regions.

Vocabulary and lexicon

Irish vocabulary is fundamentally Celtic in origin but has received borrowings over the centuries:

Old Norse and later Anglo-Norman/English contributed many loanwords (especially for introduced concepts, technology, trade).
Church Latin and later English administration left institutional and literary borrowings.
The modern revival and language planning movement has produced neologisms (often built from native roots) for modern concepts (computer = ríomhaire, telephone = guthán, television = teilifís).

Irish retains a rich stock of native morphology for compounding and derivation, which is often used to coin new terms.

Example sentences (orthography + gloss + translation)

Dia dhuit. — Dia (God) + vocative particle → “God to you” — Hello.
Tá mé ag foghlaim Gaeilge. — Tá (is/are) + mé (I) + ag (at) + foghlaim (learning) + Gaeilge (Irish): I am learning Irish.
Is maith liom an leabhar. — Is (copula) + maith (good) + liom (with me) + an leabhar (the book): I like the book.
An dtéann tú go dtí an trá? — An (question particle) + dtéann (goes) + tú (you) + go dtí (to) + an trá (the beach): Are you going to the beach?
Bhí Seán ag obair inné. — Bhí (was) + Seán + ag obair (working) + inné (yesterday): Seán was working yesterday.

These examples show mutation and preverbal particles in action (e.g. dtéann shows eclipsis/lenition effects in questions and conjugation contexts).

Famous works and literary tradition

Irish has one of the oldest vernacular literary traditions in Europe. Highlights include:

Early and medieval epics and cycles: Táin Bó Cúailnge (the Táin), the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle and early bardic poetry. These works survive in medieval manuscripts (e.g. the Book of Leinster, Book of the Dun Cow) and form the backbone of early Irish literature.
Bardic and classical Gaelic literature: a pan-Gaelic learned literature of praise-poetry, history and law used by professional poets and scholars from the Middle Ages into the early modern period.
Modern literature in Irish: from 19th–20th century revivalists to contemporary poets and novelists. Key modern works include Máirtín Ó Cadhain’s Cré na Cille (a celebrated mid-20th century modernist novel in Irish), poetry by Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill and Máirtín Ó Direáin, and a strong tradition of drama, short story and song in Irish. There is also an expanding contemporary popular culture in Irish (music, film, hip-hop and theatre), which has helped raise the language’s profile among younger speakers.

Irish and English: coexistence, policy and practice

Irish and English coexist in a bilingual (and often diglossic) environment across the island of Ireland:

In the Republic of Ireland Irish is an official language and the first official language in the constitution, but English is the dominant language of daily life, commerce and most media. Irish is taught in schools (compulsory in primary and lower-secondary education) and used in state institutions, signage and is increasingly present in broadcasting and digital media.
In Northern Ireland Irish has a different constitutional and political status; usage and support can be politically sensitive, but there has been growth in Irish-medium education and cultural usage in recent decades.

The pattern seen in census and sociolinguistic studies is mixed: while many people report some knowledge of Irish (often acquired in school), daily community use remains limited outside the Gaeltacht and Irish-medium education settings. There are active policies, organisations and media (radio TG4, Raidió na Gaeltachta, television and print) promoting Irish, alongside grassroots cultural movements and modern music and arts that use Irish to reach new audiences.

The Gaeltacht today

The Gaeltacht denotes those areas where Irish is traditionally the community language. Contemporary realities include:

Gaeltacht populations are small and unevenly distributed; census and sociolinguistic research show that only a minority of Gaeltacht electoral divisions retain two-thirds+ daily Irish use — a commonly cited threshold for robust community transmission.
Many Gaeltacht communities face language shift pressures (out-migration, English dominance in media and work, economic change), though there are community, governmental and EU programs aimed at revitalisation (education, enterprise support, media and infrastructure).

The future of Irish — likely scenarios

Predicting language futures is inherently uncertain, but current trends and policies suggest a few possible outcomes:

Continued bilingualism with niche revitalisation: Irish may continue as a strongly symbolic national language with a stable (or slowly changing) base of active speakers concentrated in Gaeltacht communities, Irish-medium schools, urban Irish-language networks and cultural sectors. Modern media (television, radio, apps, social media) and popular culture (music, film) can strengthen domain use among younger people. The Times
Localized revival in education and culture: growth of Irish-medium education, immersion programmes and urban Irish communities could expand the number of fluent speakers outside Gaeltacht regions, changing the geography of active use.
Continued shift pressures: without sustained intergenerational transmission and economic incentives for community use, Gaeltacht daily use could remain fragile in many areas. Census trends show increases in “ability” but smaller increases (or declines) in daily use — a mixed picture that points to both opportunities and challenges.

Much will depend on policy decisions, resources for community-level revitalisation, educational capacity, public media, and how cultural movements continue to make Irish attractive and useful in modern life.

📘 Irish Phrasebook – 100 Sentences

1. Greetings & Introductions (1–10)

Dia dhuit. – Hello.
Dia is Muire dhuit. – Hello (reply).
Conas atá tú? – How are you?
Tá mé go maith, go raibh maith agat. – I’m well, thank you.
Cad is ainm duit? – What is your name?
Is mise Seán. – I am Seán.
Seo í Máire. – This is Máire.
Tá áthas orm bualadh leat. – Pleased to meet you.
Slán. – Goodbye.
Slán go fóill. – See you later.

2. Everyday Politeness (11–20)

Go raibh maith agat. – Thank you.
Tá fáilte romhat. – You’re welcome.
Gabh mo leithscéal. – Excuse me.
Tá brón orm. – I’m sorry.
Le do thoil. – Please.
Go n-éirí leat. – Good luck.
Comhghairdeas! – Congratulations!
Ná habair é. – Don’t mention it.
Tá sé ceart go leor. – It’s okay.
Níl a bhuíochas ort. – No problem.

3. Numbers & Time (21–30)

A haon, a dó, a trí. – One, two, three.
Cúig euro. – Five euros.
Tá sé a cúig a chlog. – It is five o’clock.
Cén t-am é? – What time is it?
Inniu. – Today.
Amárach. – Tomorrow.
Inné. – Yesterday.
Seachtain. – A week.
Mí. – A month.
Bliain. – A year.

4. Family & People (31–40)

Mo mhuintir. – My family.
Seo é mo dheartháir. – This is my brother.
Seo í mo dheirfiúr. – This is my sister.
Mo thuismitheoirí. – My parents.
Mo pháistí. – My children.
Tá clann mhór agam. – I have a big family.
Cá as tú? – Where are you from?
Is as Éirinn mé. – I am from Ireland.
Cén aois atá tú? – How old are you?
Tá mé fiche bliain d’aois. – I am twenty years old.

5. Food & Drink (41–50)

Tá ocras orm. – I am hungry.
Tá tart orm. – I am thirsty.
An bhfuil bia agat? – Do you have food?
Ba mhaith liom uisce. – I would like water.
Ba mhaith liom tae. – I would like tea.
Ba mhaith liom caife. – I would like coffee.
Tá an bia blasta. – The food is tasty.
An bhfuil siúcra agat? – Do you have sugar?
Íocfaidh mé leis an gcárta. – I will pay by card.
Sláinte! – Cheers!

6. Travel & Transport (51–60)

Cá bhfuil an bus? – Where is the bus?
Cá bhfuil an stáisiún traenach? – Where is the train station?
Cé mhéad é an ticéad? – How much is the ticket?
Ba mhaith liom ticéad amháin. – I’d like one ticket.
Cá bhfuil an t-aerfort? – Where is the airport?
Tá an bóthar fada. – The road is long.
Táim caillte. – I am lost.
Cá bhfuil an léarscáil? – Where is the map?
Téim ar scoil ar an mbus. – I go to school by bus.
Tá carr agam. – I have a car.

7. Shopping (61–70)

Cá bhfuil an siopa? – Where is the shop?
Cé mhéad é seo? – How much is this?
Tá sé ró-chostasach. – It is too expensive.
Tá sé saor. – It is cheap.
Ba mhaith liom ceann amháin. – I’d like one.
An bhfuil sé i méideanna eile? – Is it in other sizes?
Tá dath dearg uaim. – I want red.
An féidir liom é a thriail? – Can I try it on?
Is maith liom é seo. – I like this.
Ceannaím é. – I’ll buy it.

8. Weather & Nature (71–80)

Tá sé grianmhar. – It is sunny.
Tá sé fuar. – It is cold.
Tá sé te. – It is hot.
Tá sé ag cur báistí. – It is raining.
Tá sé ag cur sneachta. – It is snowing.
Tá gaoth láidir ann. – It is very windy.
Tá an spéir gorm. – The sky is blue.
Tá na scamaill liath. – The clouds are grey.
Tá an fharraige álainn. – The sea is beautiful.
Tá an fómhar anseo. – Autumn is here.

9. Health & Feelings (81–90)

Tá mé tinn. – I am sick.
Tá tinneas cinn orm. – I have a headache.
Tá slaghdán orm. – I have a cold.
Cuidigh liom! – Help me!
Glaoigh ar dhochtúir. – Call a doctor.
Cá bhfuil an t-ospidéal? – Where is the hospital?
Tá áthas orm. – I am happy.
Tá brón orm. – I am sad.
Tá eagla orm. – I am afraid.
Tá mé tuirseach. – I am tired.

10. Culture & Everyday Life (91–100)

An maith leat ceol? – Do you like music?
Is maith liom ceol traidisiúnta. – I like traditional music.
Imrím peil. – I play football.
Léim leabhair. – I read books.
Féachaim ar an teilifís. – I watch television.
Téim ag siúl. – I go walking.
Tá Gaeilge agam. – I speak Irish.
An bhfuil Béarla agat? – Do you speak English?
Tá mé ag foghlaim Gaeilge. – I am learning Irish.
Beidh mé ar ais go luath. – I’ll be back soon.

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